Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who was born in 1486 A.D. in West Bengal, India is the founder of the vedanta school of Bengal Vaishnavism. Although a great scholar himself he did not write any philosophical works or commentaries on the prasthana-trayi1 as was done by the founders of other vedanta schools such as Sr Shankaracharya and Sri Ramanujacharya. From Chaitanya Charitamrtam2 it is understood that he taught the intricate details of his system to some of his intimate followers such as Sri Rupa Gosvami and Sri Sanatana Gosvami . He had deputed some of his intimate followers to Vrindavan, the place where Lord Krishna lived about 5200 years ago and one of the most holy places in India, to establish his school by writing literature delineating his philosophical system, teaching it to the qualified students, establish temples and places of practice, and to discover the places related with Lord Krishna‟s pastimes which had been forgotten in due course of time. Among these six followers were very prominent and were popular as the Six Gosvamis of Vrindavan. They wrote a big body of literature which is accepted as authoritative by the followers of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Among them Shri Jiva Gosvami was the youngest and one of the most scholarly and prolific writer. He wrote a number of voluminous works dealing with almost all the branches of Vaishnava literature. It is he who systematized the teachings of Lord Chaitanya and gave it the shape of a school on par with other Vaishnava schools such as those founded by Sri Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Madhavacharya and Vallabhacharya. Of all his works the Shat-sandarbha, and Sarva-samvadini are well known for his deep analysis and elaboration of entire theology as well as philosophy of Bengal Vaishnavism in a systematic manner. The original name of the Shat-sandarbha is Bhagavata Sandarbha, being an exposition and analysis of the message of Shrimad Bhagavata Purana.
General tradition in India for a school to be recognized as bonafide is to establish its philosophical tenets on the basis of prasthana-trayi(lit. the three great highways) which consists of the ten principal Upanishads, Vedanta-sutra, and Bhagavad-gita. Sri Chaitnya Mahaprabhu, however, gave utmost importance to Srimad Bhagavat Purana and proclaimed that it is an explanation of the Vedanta Sutra by the author, Sri Vyasa himself. Sri Chaitnya declared that Shrimad Bhagavata fully represents his own doctrine. 3 Therefore, his followers did not attempt to write commentaries on prasthana-trayi but wrote commentaries, essays and independent works on Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Bhagavata-sandarbha or Shat-sandarbha of Jiva Gosvami is one of these. It is an independent essay and very elaborate analysis of the subject of Bhagavata Purana and hence the name Bhagavata-sandarbha. It is popularly called Shat-sandarbha because it consists of six(shat) books, namely Tattva-sandarbha, Bhagavat-sandarbha, Parmatma-sandarbha, Krishna-sandarbha, Bhakti-sandarbha and Priti-sandarbha. Sarva-samvadidni is a supplement to the first four of the Shat-sandarbha.
The Bhagavat Sandarbha 4 is the second among the six Sandarbhas. It is called Bhagavat because its principal theme is the description of Bhagavan, the personal form of God, distinct from the quality-less impersonal Brahman.5
The Vedanta Sutra begins with an exposition of Brahman. Shankaracharya, the propagator of Advaita school of vedanta has explained that Brahman is unqualified (nirvishesa) and formless
(nirakara). He bases his conclusion on the authority of some specific statements of the Upanishads which declare that Brahman is the only reality, nothing else exits in the ultimate sense, it is without any qualities, parts and defects.6 He accepts two Brahman – saguna or qualified and nirguna or unqualified, the latter being the only ultimate reality, the temporal world does not exist in the real sense. All the Vaishnava schools refute his explanations. They have commented on the prasthana-trayi and explained them to establish that the Ultimate Reality is not without form and attributes. Shri Jiva Gosvami also does not agree with Advaita school but he has used a novel approach to establish his conclusion about the ultimate reality. He did not comment upon the prasthana-trayi and thus he does not directly refute the interpretations of Shankaracharya as has been done by senior vaishnava acharys such as Shri Ramanuja and Madhvacharya. He analyses the heart of sage Vyasa, the author of Vedanta-sutra and Srimad Bhagavata Purana, and the heart of the speakers of the Bhagavata Purana and shows that they all realized the superiority of personal form of Bhagavan over impersonal Brahman. He did this on the basis of the descriptions found in Bhagavata Purana. The conclusion of Vedanta-sutra could not be different from that of Bhagavata Purana, both being authored by Vyasa. This is discussed in great detail in Tattva-sandarbha (29-49), the first of the six sandarbhas.
All Vedanta schools agree that Ultimate Reality is one. The differences lie in the understanding of this Reality and its relation to the temporal world. Sri Jiva Gosvami bases his concept of the Ultimate Reality on the famous verse of Shrimad Bhagavata Purana (1.2.11)
“The Ultimate Reality (Tattava ) which the knowers of reality proclaim as non-dual consciousness (advaya-jnana) is called by three appellations of Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan.”
This verse sums up the concept of Reality. The first line of the verse calls the Reality as advaya-jnana and in the second line the same is called by three names as Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan which are Its three manifestations. Sri Jiva has commented upon the first line of this verse in Tattva Sandarbha(51)7 He says that the term jnana(lit. knowledge) in this verse means the Reality constituted of pure consciousness(cideka-rupam). The word advaya(lit. not two) signifies that there is nothing similar or dissimilar to this Reality. It does not signify attributeless consciousness (Brahman) of the Advaita school. The non-dualistic nature of the Ultimate Reality implies that It is self-sufficient, fully independent and Itself being Its own substratum. There is no other self-existent entity similar or dissimilar to it. The living beings are similar to it, being conscious by nature, but they are not self-existent being subordinate to Paramatma. The inert matter, space, time etc. are neither similar to it nor self-existent. In Sarva-samvadini Sri Jiva further explains that there is nothing equal to it in the same category (sajatiya-bheda) or in different category (vijatiya bheda); and because it is an indivisible substance, there being no difference between the essence and form or between one part of body from another (svagata-bheda) the Reality is advaya or non-dual. Advaya thus means unparalleled. It is not the advaita or the sole reality of the Advaita school. This Reality is endowed with multifarious potencies as its assistant factors. Contrary to the view of Advaita-vedantis the Reality is not devoid of potencies. This naturally implies that It has attributes, forms and actions. And these potencies being inherent in the Reality cannot exist separately or independently without It. The word tattva ( lit. thatness) implies that it is of the nature of supreme bliss being the ultimate object attained by human endeavors. 8 Happiness is the topmost goal desired by human beings. Therefore, if Tattva means highest realty then it must be of the nature of bliss otherwise it could not be the supreme goal of human endeavors. That also implies that it must be eternal. In other words the tattva called advaya-jnana implies conscious, blissful, eternal reality. This is identified with Bhagavan.
Shri Jiva Gosvami begins the Bhagavat Sandarbha with an explanation of the second line of the above referred verse of Bhagavata Purana (1.2.11). His purpose in writing this sandarbha is to establish the concept of Bhagavan i.e. Bhagvan is the highest manifestation of the reality,
superior to Brahman, consisting of a supra-mundane form replete with transcendental energies. The concept of paramatma is explained in great detail in Paramatma–sandarbha. He writes that although the Absolute Reality is one and indivisible it has three aspects according to the individual capacity of realization of the devotee (upasaka-yogyata-vaishishtyena). The same Absolute Reality can therefore be experienced as Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan. These are three designations of the same Reality according to the realization of a particular transcendentalist. Sri Jiva Gosvami, however, hastens to add that the Absolute Reality is never designated as jiva, an individual soul. The specific sequence in this verse has been employed to indicate the relative importance of Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan. To make this clear he defines these three as follows:
“This Absolute Reality is known as Brahman to those transcendentalists (paramahamsas) who have rejected all material pleasures even up to the happiness available to Lord Brahma, and who by ardent practice have realized their identity with this Reality, which is indivisible and blissful in nature, but whose hearts are unable to perceive the variegated ness displayed by Its internal potencies and thus experience It in an unspecific way, just as they sought It; in other words, when the Absolute Truth is defined without any distinction between energies and Energetic, then It is called Brahman.”
“And that very same Absolute Reality is named Bhagavan when, as the resting place of all other transcendental energies, It takes on some specific characteristics by the power of Its internal potency and becomes revealed to the senses, both internal and external, of the devotee transcendentalists (bhagavata-paramahamsas), for whom the entire universe has been colored by the bliss of such experience, whose senses have been imbued with devotion, itself a specific part of that internal pleasure potency and the only efficient means of giving them this realization; in other words, when the Absolute Truth is thus defined according to the distinction made between energies and Energetic, it is known as Bhagavan.”
“When this tattva – Bhagavan (the possessor of supreme majestic qualities) – is described or realized as the controller of the living beings, He is known as Paramatma (Supersoul).”
From these definitions it is clear that there is no ontological difference between Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan. The difference lies in the perceptions of the respective transcendentalists. Yet the difference is not just in the name only.
To show the distinction between Brahman and Bhagavan Sri Jiva Gosvami cites two verses from Bhagavata Purana (5.12.11, 4.11.30):
“All-encompassing awareness is the Ultimate Truth. It is devoid of the contamination of material qualities, and hence, is of the nature of Supreme transcendence. It is oneness, free from internal and external divisions (Brahman). It is omnipresence, immanence, devoid of transformations (the unruffled witness – Paramatama). This all-encompassing awareness is designated as Bhagavan, the complete whole, called by mystics as Vasudeva.”
Manu told Dhruva: “ By rendering service unto the Supreme Lord, the possessor of all potencies (Bhagavan), the all-powerful reservoir of pleasure (Brahman) who resides in all living beings as the Soul of all (paramatma), you will very soon cut the tightened knot of ignorance in the form of I and my.”
Analyzing these verses Sri Jiva states that in the Tattva the bliss, or ananda, is the unqualified substantive (visheshya), all the energies are the qualifications (visheshana) and Bhagavan is the qualified object (vishishta). For example, in the phrase „blue lotus‟ lotus is the unqualified substantive, blue is the qualifying agent, and blue lotus is the qualified object. There is no real difference between lotus and blue lotus except that former does not convey any specific features and latter clearly states its color. The distinction between Brahman and Bhagavan is similar. In this way, being qualified with all potencies, Bhagavan is the undifferentiated reality because He is the complete manifestation of the Absolute Truth. Brahman, however, exhibits no specific qualities. Therefore, It is an incomplete manifestation of that Truth, just as lotus is incomplete understanding of blue lotus. Thus although there is no real difference between Brahman and
Bhagavan yet they are not exactly the same. The difference lies in the limitation of realization on the part of the devotee. If the truth of Bhagavan is realized Brahman will naturally be understood, just as one who understand blue lotus knows lotus automatically. For this reason Sri Jiva wrote Bhagavat-sandarbha and Paramatma-sandarbha to explain the nature of Bhagavan and Paramatma respectively but he did not write Brahma-sandarbha separately. It is contained within Bhagavat-sandarbha. This understanding of Brahman is different from that given by the Advaita school who consider Brahman to be devoid of all qualities, form, name and actions per se.
In the same way, there is no absolute difference between Bhagavan and Paramatma, the latter being a partial manifestation (svamsha) of Bhagavan. In this manifestation He is the cause of creation, enters the individual souls who constitutes the part of His Tatastha (lit. situated on bank) potency, enlivens the bodies and all objects beginning with the pradhana and as the inner controller He guides them in their respective functions. Thus although there is no absolute difference among the three aspects of One Absolute Reality yet according to Sri Jiva Gosvami, Bhagavan is the highest manifestation (purna avirbhava) replete with unparalleled multifarious potencies. In comparison to Bhagavan, Brahman is the incomplete manifestation (asamyag avirbhava) of the Absolute Reality. The realization of Bhagavan naturally contains the realization of Brahman but not vice-versa. The rest of the Sandarbha is a further elaboration of the nature of Bhagavan, his form, name, abode, devotees, activities and his superiority to Brahman. Hence he rightly calls it as Bhagavat Sandarbha – an essay on Bhagavan.
From the statements of sage Parashara in Vishnu Purana (6.5.74), Jiva Gosvami shows that the word Bhagavan means one who has six-fold majesties in the form of controlling power, inconceivable potencies, fame, wealth, knowledge and detachment in their fullness. Bhagavan also means one who is never influenced by the three gunas of prakrti (Vishnu Purana 6.5.79). His energies have a relationship of inherence (samavaya)9 with Him and thus he is never devoid of potencies. Although He is endowed with infinite potencies they are categorized in three groups as internal potency (Antaranga or Svarupa shakti), intermediate potency (Tatashta or Jiva shakti) and external potency ( Bahiranga or Maya shakti). The internal potency constitutes the perfect Selfhood of Bhagavan. It is fully and directly displayed in Him while the other two energies are displayed indirectly through the works of Paramatma who is His partial manifestation. By virtue of this inscrutable natural potency the same Ultimate Reality eternally undergoes fourfold manifestations as svarupa or essential form, vaibhava or partial expansions, jiva or individual souls and pradhana or the primordial matter. Thus Bhagavan is simultaneously endowed with conscious energy (chit shakti) and inert matter (achit shakti, also called maya shakti or bahiranga shakti). Maya shakti or external energy can never exercise its influence on Bhagavan. However, it has the power of causing delusion to the individual souls. The chit shakti and maya shakti are mutually antagonistic and yet their manifold functions are founded in the common substratum of Bhagavan.
Shri Jiva Gosvami stresses on two features of the energies of the Lord, namely their inconceivable nature (achintyatva) and their being natural (svabhavikatva) to the Lord. The inconceivable feature means that these potencies are inscrutable and are beyond the reach of human thought and reason (tarka-asaham). They are capable of bringing out impossible effects and they are accepted on the strength of the effect perceived (karya-anyatha-anupapatti-pramanakam), just as the power of some mantras or gems which can cure otherwise incurable diseases. The inconceivable feature also indicates the peculiar relation of these energies with Bhagavan, the possessor of the energies (shaktimat). This relation is neither of difference nor of non-difference and it is because of this peculiar relation that the philosophy of Sri Lord Chaitanya is called achintya-bheda-abheda-vada – simultaneously and inconceivably oneness and difference between energy and the Energetic.
Svabhavikatva means that energies are natural to the Lord and constitute in their totality His very essence although He transcends them. The energies are neither borrowed nor superimposed on
him. In the last part of Bhagavat Sandarbha Sri Jiva Gosvami says that the energies of the Lord have personalities and have distinct name, form and personalities and are depicted as His wives.
The Svarupa shakti of Bhagavan has three aspects of existence (sandhini), awareness (samvit) and bliss (hladini). The sandhini potency is the energy of existence of the Self-existent Bhagavan and it upholds the existence of the individual souls and nature. The samvit potency is the potency of knowledge of Bhagavan by which He knows and makes others know. The hladini potency is the potency of bliss which gives bliss to Bhagavan who Himself is full of bliss and causes others to enjoy. These three aspects of the internal potency are the very nature of Bhagavan and thus exist eternally in Him.
Samvit potency includes and supersedes sandhini potency and hladini potency includes and supersedes both of them. These three aspects of the internal potency always exist together with different combinations and proportions. The combination of these three aspects is called suddha sattva and depending on the preponderance of any of these three aspects it takes different designations such as adhara shakti, atmavidya, guhyavidya. The svarupa shakti of the Lord implies both the nature of the Lord, and his abode, associates etc.
Sri Jiva Gosvami spends much effort to establish that the energies of Bhagavan are real, eternal and not superimposed or borrowed. This is in contrast to the belief of the followers of Advaita school who consider the qualityless, formless, impotent Brahman to be the Ultimate Reality, and Bhagavan as a product of maya (Panchdashi 1.236). Next Sri Jiva establishes that form of Bhagavan is not material like that of human beings. It is spiritual and consists of existence, consciousness and bliss (sac-chid-ananda-rupatvam). Such a form can not be cognized by ordinary material senses yet it is revealed by the inconceivable potency of Bhagavan. Unlike mortal beings, form of Bhagavan is not different from the essential nature of Bhagavan. Although the form of Bhagavan is one it can manifest at unlimited places in unlimited aspects simultaneously in accordance to the mood of his devotees. Form of Bhagavan although manifest in one place and thus may appear limited with hands and feet it is all-pervading. An example of this was witnessed in the childhood pastime of Krishna when once he out of childhood prank broke a mudpot full of yogurt and his mother tried to bind him with ropes. All the available ropes in the house joined together were insufficient to go around Krishna‟s belly to tie him although Krishna was a small child and had a normal size belly. The attributes of limitation and all-pervasiveness were present in the form of Krishna simultaneously. Form of Bhagavan is always beyond the limits of time and place even when manifest in the material world.
Like the form of Bhagavan, His dress, ornaments, abode called Vaikuntha, associates are all manifestation of svarupa-shakti, the internal potency. They are all identical with Bhagavan. Bhagavan has various forms such as with two hands, four hands, six hands and so on and they are all real. But among all these forms the two handed human form is the topmost and the most suitable object of meditation. Sri Jiva identifies this form with Sri Krishna.
Like the form, the name of Bhagavan is also identical with Him. It has the same power as Bhagavan. Thus realizing the name even once can make one free from the bondage of the material world. Not only the name, but even the syllables constituting the name help the power to deliver one from material bondage. As Bhagavan manifests His form in the material world called an avatara He also manifests His name in the same manner. This implies that the name of Bhagavan is not material like the ordinary names. It is of the same nature as Bhagavan. It has the power to transport one immediately into the spiritual realm if uttered by the tongue or meditated upon. Sometimes Lord is called nameless (anama) in the scriptures. It means that His name is transcendental and beyond the comprehension of the material senses. Based upon this understanding Bengal Vaishnavism lays great stress on nama-sankirtana or congregational chanting with the accompaniment of musical instruments, and nama-japa. Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu said that in the present age, Kali-yuga, congregational chanting of the names of Bhagavan is the most efficacious means for attaining the perfection in spiritual life. He propagated nama-sankirtana in India and thus is rightly called sankirtan-pita or the originator of
the singing of names of Bhagavan. He also predicted that one day nama-sankirtan will become popular all over the world, a prophecy which has come true.
Sri Jiva Gosvami writes that like name and form, the hue of Bhagavan‟s body is also transcendental to the gunas of prakriti. Usually black color is considered as a manifestation of tamo-guna, but that does not apply to the transcendental color of Krishna‟s form. In conclusion, birth, action, name, form, color etc. of Bhagavan are spiritual, being manifestations of His svarupa shakti and they manifest to enhance the bliss of His devotees. The Lord is atmarama, one who delights in Himself, yet He gives His grace to His devotees. His grace is one of his infinite attributes and it is an aspect of His peculiarly wonderfully nature displaying His internal bliss. It is out of grace on His devotees that Bhagavan reveals His birth, form, pastimes, etc. There is no other purpose behind this because He is complete in Himself.
After establishing the transcendental nature of Bhagavan‟s form, name, action, abode, associates, etc. Sri Jiva Gosvami again brings back his attention to the distinction between Brahman and Bhagavan. He says that although the Ultimate Reality is one and indivisible yet the distinction between these two manifestations cannot be ignored as a mere difference in designation. Moreover, one of them is not a transformation of another because none of them is subject to it. The distinction between Brahman and Bhagavan arises because of two types of devotees who follow different paths of jnana and bhakti respectively. Bhagavan manifests Himself according to the qualification of the devotee. Sri Jiva again stresses that although these two manifestations are identical Bhagavan is superior to Brahman because in Bhagavan there is complete manifestation of the svarupa shakti of the Ultimate Reality, while in Brahman the attributes remain unmanifest. Therefore, the vision of Brahman which manifests only the undifferentiated aspect of the ultimate Reality is said to be incomplete. And the realization of Bhagavan and his multifarious specialties constituting the essence of the Ultimate Reality is said to be perfect and complete. Such a complete and perfect realization of Bhagavan is possible only through bhakti. The realization of Bhagavan naturally contains the realization of Brahman in it. Therefore the path of bhakti is superior to the path of jnana. The bliss of bhakti (bhajana-ananda) is much superior to the bliss of realization of Brahman (svarupa-ananda). Therefore, even liberated people take delight in rendering service to Bhagavan. In fact, Brahman realization is not possible without performing bhakti mixed with Brahma-jnana. The path of jnana by itself is impotent to give realization of Brahman.
Both jnana and bhakti are two different manifestations of the chit-shakti of the Absolute Reality corresponding to its two different forms as Brahman and Bhagavan. When the chit-shakti is related with Bhagavan, an aspect of the Absolute Reality endowed with attributes like self-luminosity etc., it is called bhakti; and when it is related with Brahman, another aspect of the same Reality conceived as undifferentiated consciousness, it is termed as jnana.
The superiority of bhakti to jnana leads to the conclusion that the scriptures which speak of Brahma and preach the efficacy of jnana only incompletely perceive the true character of the Lord. The Bhagavata Purana which has for its exclusive theme the Bhagavan, the greatest of all tattvas, reveals His true and perfect character as it deals with the efficacy of bhakti. This text is, therefore, honoured by the devotees as the greatest and most authoritative of all scriptures, the amalam puranam(Bhagavata Purana 12.13.18). It is for this reason that Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu gave it position higher even than the prasthana-trayi. By writing the Sandarbhas Sri Jiva Gosvami has revealed the true glory of this Purana. In this context he interprets the real purport of the four seed verses known as catuh-sloki (2.9.32.35), the essence of Bhagavata Purana. Sri Jiva reveals that the word rahasya or secret (2.9.30) used here is nothing but pure love. This is the highest goal of human life and he elaborates on this in Priti-sandarbha. He concludes Bhagavat-sandarbha with the glorification of divine love, prema bhakti, the only means to have realization of Bhagavan.
Sri Chaitnya Mahaprabhu preached the message of loving devotion to Bhagavan. The process to achieve this love is bhakti. To practice bhakti with trust the concept of Bhagavan must be
clearly understood without any lingering doubts. Moreover real bhakti is not possible if Bhagavan is not an eternal, conscious, blissful person, unlike the Bhagavan of Advaita-vedanta . Sri Jiva Gosvami did and excellent work of giving a thorough analysis and explanation about the concept of Bhagavan. It is of utmost importance to Bengal Vaishnavism. About the greatness of this masterpiece Dr. Chinmayi Chatterjee writes,” The concept of Bhagavan as presented in the Bhagavatsandarbha marks the final stage of evolution of the idea of godhead, which has its first inception in the hymns of Rgveda, the fountain source of the philosophy and religious thought of India.”10
1 The word prasthana means a march to victory and trayi means three. The compound word prasthan-trayi means the three literature for conquering over the material bondage. This includes Upanishads, which are also called Vedanta, the Vedanta-sutra and the Bhagavad-gita. There are hundreds of Upanishads but ten were commented upon by Shankaracharya, and are considered as the chief. These are Isha, Kena, Katha,
Prashna, Mundaka,, Mandukya, Taittareya, Aaitreya, Chandogya and Brihad-arnyaka. Vedanta-sutras were written by sage Vyasa .They synthesize and pinpoint the philosophy of the Upanishads. Bhagavad-gita was spoken by Lord Krishna and expands upon the meaning of the Vedanta-sutra.
2 Chaitnya Charitamritam, Madhya Lila, chapters 19 and 20.
3 Chaitnya Charitamritam Madhya Lila, 11.17-bhagavate kahe mora tattva abhimata.
4 Note the difference between Bhagavat and Bhagavata; former is the second sandarbha and latter is the collective name for all six.
5 Bhagavat is the stem word and bhagavan is the singular, nominative form of bhagavat.
6 Chandogya Upanishad, 9.1.1- parmarthasat advyam brahma;
Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.19 – nirgunam nishkalam shantam niravadyam niranjanam; Chandogya Upanishad, 3-14.1 – sarvam khalu idam brahma;
neha nana asti kinchana.
7 Sri Jiva derives the name Tattva-sandarbha from the word tattva used in the first line of this verse. The next two sandarbhas i.e. Bhagavat and Parmatma derive their names from the words Bhagavan and Paramatma used in the second line of this verse.
8 The word tattva is used for the ultimate reality, the essence, as well as for Brahman.
9 In Indian logic two type of relations are accepted, that of contact (samyoga) and inherence (samavaya); the first one is a temporary relation as in case of a book and table on which the book is lying, the second is a permanent relation as in case of a substance and its quality, such sugar and its white color.
10 Pp ii Introduction, Bbhagavatsandarbha, edited by Dr. Chinmayi Chatterjee, Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India, 1972.
An article by Dr. Satyanarana Das
Founder of Jiva Institute (Institue for Vaishnava Studies , Vrindavan, India)
Hindu Philosophy Lecturer at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Mississippi State University
Sree Sree Gita Sangha Reading Room 